Seventh week: Listening

Hello everybody ! This week we are going to work with a new session of listening. We hope you enjoy and improve your English auditive comprehension. Have a nice week (:

Grammar: Word Formation

Word formation

New words enter the English language in a range of ways. One common source of new words is to borrow them from other languages. For example, café is originally a French word that was borrowed into English in the late 19th century. The most frequent strategy for creating new words from English language resources is the use of derivational morphology. However, there are several more ways that words are formed. These include: backformation, base modification, conversion (also called "shape sharing"), compounding, clipping, blending, reduplication and initialism.

Backformation

Backformation is a process by which word is mis-analysed as having an affix because it has a similar form to a word with an affix. The "affix" is then removed to make a new word; for example, editor historically is a word with one morpheme only, but, because of words like baker and actor (verb + nominaliser suffix) the word was reanalysed as edit + or, resulting in the formation of the more recent verb edit.

Base modification

A number of English lexemes have different senses depending on how the word is stressed. For example the noun REcord exists in a pair with the verb reCORD. Other words that do this include: addict, console, compress, conduct, contract, discharge, export, recall, permit, and torment.

Conversion

Conversion is when a word is changed from one part of speech to another without changing form or pronunciation, for example, the noun input used as a verb(to) input. There are many noun / verb pairs in English that are related by conversion. Consider the following body parts as examples: head, face, shoulder, arm,hand, finger, stomach, leg.

Compounding

Compounding is when two bases are joined together to make a new word. These can be the same part of speech (for example, the two verbs break and danceforming the compound verb breakdance), or different (for example, the noun stress and the adjective related forming the compound adjective stress-related).

Clipping

Clipping involves omitting part of the base of a word, so the shortened version becomes a word in its own right (for example, barbeque → barbie, or microphone→ mike).

Blending

Blending is when part of one word is joined to part of another word (for example, gigantic + enormous → ginormous).

Reduplication

Reduplication is the process of forming compound words by repeating all or part of a word (for example, no-no, higgledy-piggledy or mish-mash).

Initialisms

Initialisms are formed by combining the initial letter (or sometimes letters) of a word.

If the new word can be pronounced as it is spelt, it is called an acronym (for example, Aboriginal and Torrres Strait Islander Commission → ATSIC).

If the letter names are still pronounced, it's called an abbreviation (for example, digital video (or versatile) disc → DVD).

Grammar: Gerund and Infinitive

The Full infinitive (With to) is used:
 -to express purpose:
 I'm just going to the bank to get some money out .
 -after certain adjectives (I'm/she was etc) amazed, delighted, disappointed;
 (It is/was) easy, important, neccesary, We're delighted to see you. It is easy to critisize others.
-after certain verbs. agree,appear,arrange,demand,deserve,expect,help,hesitate,hope,learn,manage,need,offer,pretend,refuse,seem,struggle,threaten,would like,promise, 
I've decided to take the exam but don't expect to pass. 
-after certain verbs with an object. advise,allow,ask,enable,encourage,expect,help,invitate,persuade,recommend,remind,tech,tell,warm The experience taught me not to trust anyone but myself
 -after certain nouns ability,chance,decision,effort,failure,intention,opportunity,plan,power,refusal,right,tendency,way
 the defendant excerscised his right to remain silent 

 The Bare infinitive (without to) is used: 
-after modal verbs 
you can look at it, but you mustn't touch 
 -after these verbs
 help,had better,let,make,would rather/sooner
 I'd better go- I promised to help my dad clean his car 



 The Gerund is used:
 -after prepositions 
She got tired of waiting for him and went home
 -as the subject,object or complement of a sentence or clause 
Eating the right kind of food improves Learning 
-after certain verbs admit,adore,advice,appreiate,anticipate,avoid,consider,deny,dislike,enjoy,feel,like,imagine,keep,mind,miss,prevent,recommend,resent,risk and suggest.
 eg. He admitted breaking the window but denied stealing anthing 
-after verbs which include the preposition 'to'
get round to,be/get used to,look forward to,object to
 I still can't get use to working with a computer
 -after these verbs and expressions
 can't help,can't stand,have difficulty,It's/there is no use, It's not worth It's no use worrying about it

Grammar: Conditionals.

"Conditionals" are structures of English in which if a certain situation,condition or circumstance is true,then a specific result happens. Here we'll see some types of "conditionals":

Zero Conditional - (Type Zero): A situation that is always true

         Ex.If you freeze water, it turns into ice.

First Conditional - (Type I): A possible or real situation 

         Ex.If it rains today, I'll stay at home.

Second Conditional - (Type II): A hypothetical situation

         Ex.If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world.

Third Conditional - (Type III): A hypothetical situation that happened in the past

        Ex.If I had won the lottery, I would have traveled around the world.

-Conditional: wish + past simple - A desire about a situation that is not real

Ex.I wish I were rich (but I am not)

-Conditional: wish + past perfect - A desire about the past

Ex.I wish I had learned English when I was younger (but I didn't)

-Conditional: wish + would - Expressing irritation or displeasure

Ex.I wish you would stop making that noise

-Words to express conditions: unless, provided, ...

Ex.You won't pass the exam unless you study harder.

1.TYPE ZERO

This conditional refers to a situation which is always true (universal truths).The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the meaning.

If you freeze water, it turns into ice.

Si congelas el agua, se convierte en hielo.

If I work too much, I get tired. 

Si trabajo demasiado, me canso.

If I have time, I usually go to the movies.

Si tengo tiempo, generalmente voy al cine.

If she eats hamburgers, she gets an allergy.

Si ella come hamburguesas, le da alergia.

2.TYPE I

Formed with if + simple present + simple future. It is used when a situation is possible or real.Of course, we can't know what will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come true.

If it rains today, I'll stay at home.

Si llueve hoy, me quedaré en casa.

If he is busy now, I will come back tomorrow.

Si está ocupado ahora, regresaré mañana.

If I have time, I'll visit my parents this afternoon.

Si tengo tiempo, visitaré a mis padres esta tarde.

If it is warm tomorrow, we'll go to the beach.

Si está caluroso mañana, iremos a la playa.

3.TYPE II

It refers to a hypothetical situation and it is formed by if + simple past + simple conditional.

If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world.

Si ganara la lotería, viajaría por todo el mundo.

If I were in Brazil, I would go to Rio de Janeiro.

Si yo estuviese en Brasil, iría a Río de Janeiro.

If I were you, I would buy that car.

Si yo fuese tú, compraría ese auto.

If he were in my place, he wouldn't do this.

Si él estuviese en mi lugar, no haría esto.

4.TYPE III

It refers to a hypothetical situation from the past and it is formed with the structure if + past perfect + conditional perfect.It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.

If I had won the lottery, I would have traveled around the world.

Si yo hubiera ganado la lotería, habría viajado por todo el mundo.

If I had seen him, I would have told him about you.

Si lo hubiese visto, le habría contado acerca de ti.

If I had known the answer, I would have raised my hand.

Si hubiese sabido la respuesta, habría levantado mi mano.

If she had come on Saturday, I would have seen her.

Si ella hubiese venido el sábado, la habría visto.

*(Notice we can put 'if' at the beginning, or in the middle. It doesn't matter at all.)

Grammar: Direct and Indirect Questions

 Direct questions are the “normal” questions that we can ask to friends, family members, and people who we know well. Example of a direct question:“Where’s the bathroom?”

Indirect questions are a little more formal and polite. We use them when talking to a person we don’t know very well, or in professional situations, and their form is a little different. Example of an indirect question:

“Could you tell me where the bathroom is?”

Phrases for Indirect Questions

§  Could you tell me…

§  Do you know…

§  I was wondering…

§  Do you have any idea…

§  I’d like to know…

§  Would it be possible…

§  Is there any chance…

Direct and Indirect Questions in English: Examples

Direct: Where is Market Street?

Indirect: Could you tell me where Market Street is?

In indirect questions with is/are, the verb (is) comes after the subject (Market Street).

Direct What time does the bank open?

Indirect: Do you know what time the bank opens?

In indirect questions, we don’t use the auxiliary verbs do/does/did. Also, you can see that the verb is “open” in the direct question, and “opens” in the indirect question.

Direct: Why did you move to Europe?

Indirect: I was wondering why you moved to Europe.

Again, there is no auxiliary verb did in the indirect question. In fact, this indirect question isn’t even a question – it’s more of a statement that invites the other person to give more information.

Direct: How has he managed to get in shape so quickly?

Indirect: Do you have any idea how he’s managed to get in shape so quickly?

The auxiliary verbs have and has can be used in both the direct and indirect questions – but in the direct question, “has” comes before the subject (he), and in the indirect question, “has” comes after the subject.

Direct: How much does this motorcycle cost?

Indirect: I’d like to know how much this motorcycle costs.

To form the indirect question, remove does and change “cost” to “costs.”

Direct: Can you finish the project by tomorrow?

Indirect: Would it be possible for you to finish the project by tomorrow?

For direct questions with can, we can use the phrase “would it be possible…” to make it indirect.

Direct: Can we change the meeting to Thursday?

Indirect: Is there any chance we could change the meeting to Thursday?

“Is there any chance…” is another option for forming indirect questions with can.

Yes/No Direct Questions –> “If” in Indirect Questions

If the direct question is a “yes or no” question (it has no question word such as what, who, when, where, why, or how), then the indirect question will have if.

Direct: Does Tom like Italian food?
Indirect: Do you know if Tom likes Italian food?

Direct: Are your parents joining us for dinner?
Indirect: Could you tell me if your parents are joining us for dinner?

Direct: Do they speak English?
Indirect: I was wondering if they speak English.

Direct: Has Barbara ever studied abroad?
Indirect: Do you have any idea if Barbara’s ever studied abroad?

Direct: Do you plan on traveling this summer?
Indirect: I’d like to know if you plan on traveling this summer.

Grammar: Modal Verbs

Modals express our attitudes and emotions to an event or situation. The modal auxiliary verbs are: can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should, ought to and need. There are other non-modal verbs and expressions (e.g. be able to, have to, allow) which we can sometimes use instead of modal verbs.

Form:

- Present time:

Subject + Modal + Infinitive: “You can go”

- Past time:

Subject + Modal + Have + Past participle: “You could have gone”

* Notes:

- “He/ She/ It can go” (there is no change in the third person)

- Modal verbs have no infinitive form.

TYPES OF MODALS:

1. Permission:

Can, could and may are used to talk about permission.

- Can:

“Can I go out? Is that all right?” (Asking for permission)
“He can go to the cinema on his own. That’s OK.” (Giving permission)

- Could:

“Could I borrow some money?” (Asking for permission - more polite than Can I...?)
“She said that I could go to the party” (Reporting permission)

- May:

“May I leave class early today? I’ve got a job interview.” (Asking for permission – for more formal situations)

Other non-modal verbs and expressions can be used to talk about permission:

- Let + Object + Infinitive:

“My parents let me go to concerts with my friends.”
(Note: Let does not have a passive form)

- Allow (to):

“They allow her to watch TV.” (Allow + Object + To + Infinitive)
“I was allowed to leave class early today.” (Passive + To + Infinitive)
(Note: In a sentence like this, where the permission resulted in an action, we can’t use could. E.g. “I could leave the class early today.”)

- Permit (to):

“You are permitted to smoke only in the designated areas.”
“Smoking is permitted only in the designated areas.”
(Rules made by someone else – more formal than allow)

2. Prohibition:

Can’t, couldn’t, mustn’t and may not are used to talk about prohibition.

- Can’t:

“He can’t go to a nightclub. He’s too young.” (Prohibition)

- Couldn’t (past form of can):

“He said I couldn’t use it.” (He refused permission)

- Mustn’t:

“You mustn’t talk in the library. Please be quiet!” (Direct order)
(Note: The past form of this sentence is “I wasn’t allowed to talk in the library”)

- May not:

“Candidates may not leave the room during the exam.” (Prohibition)

Other non-modal expressions can be used to talk about prohibition and rules that are made by someone else:

- Not supposed (to):

“You’re not supposed to park here.”

- Allow (to):

“My manager won’t allow me to take the day off.”
“You are not allowed to take photographs here.”

- Permit (to):

“You are not permitted to smoke in here”
“Smoking is not permitted here.” (More formal than allow)

- Forbid/ Ban:

“Cars are forbidden/ banned in the town centre.” (Prohibition – Very strong)
(Note: Forbid is more likely to be used in formal notices than when speaking)

3. Obligation and Necessity:

We use must/ mustn’t to express strong obligation or necessity.

- Must (stronger than should/ had better):

“I must post the letter straightaway.” (I, personally, feel it is necessary)

*Note: For the future of must we use will/’ll have to and for the past we use had to:

“I’ll have to hurry or I’ll miss the last bus”. (Future)
“She had to go home because she felt ill.” (Past)

- Mustn’t (stronger than shouldn’t):

“You mustn’t forget your keys.” (An obligation NOT to do something.)

Other non-modal verbs can be used to talk about strong obligation and necessity:

- Have (got) to is used when the situation or someone else (not the speaker) makes it necessary:

“I have to work late tonight. My boss says so.”
“We‘ll have to invite my mother next time.” (The situation makes it necessary)
“I had to go to the doctor yesterday.” (Past time – It was necessary)

- Make is used for a strong obligation imposed by someone else:

“Her parents make her wash the dishes.” (Make + Object + Infinitive)
“She is made to wash the dishes.” (Passive + To + Infinitive)

Should/ Shouldn’t, Ought to/ Ought not to are used to express a slightly less strong obligation or a duty/ responsibility:

“You should/ ought to phone and let them know you’ll be late.”
“They shouldn’t leave without permission.”

Should have/ Ought to have is used when something was the right thing to do, but you didn’t do it:

“You should have/ ought to have had an early night last night. You look tired.” (You didn’t go to bed early)
(Note: shouldn’t have is commonly used, but ought not to have is rare)

Supposed to is a non-modal expression we use to talk about our responsibilities and the correct way of doing things:

“What time are we supposed to be at the office?”

4. Lack of obligation/ necessity:

We use don’t have to/ Haven’t got to, Needn’t/ Don’t need to, Needn’t have and Didn’t need to to express lack of obligation or necessity.

- Don’t have to/ Haven’t got to:

“You don’t have to wash those dishes. They’re clean.” (It’s not necessary)

*Note:
Have got to is more informal than have to. We use didn’t have to as the past form of both don’t have to and haven’t got to:
“I didn’t have to go to the doctor’s yesterday.” (It wasn’t necessary)

-Needn’t/ Don’t need to:

“You needn’t/ don’t need to wash those dishes. They’re clean. (It’s not necessary)

*Note:
Need can be a modal verb (negative: needn’t) or an ordinary verb (negative: don’t need)

- We use both needn’t have (modal verb) and didn’t need to (ordinary verb) when we talk about past time, but they have different meanings:

“There were plenty of seats on the train. We didn’t need to stand.” (It wasn’t necessary)
“There were plenty of seats on the train. We needn’t have stood.” (It wasn’t necessary, but we did stand)

5. Advice and Recommendation:

Should (n’t)/ Should have, Ought to/ Ought to have are used o give advice and recommendations. (Ought to is less commonly used than should)

“You should see it. It’s a great film.”
“You shouldn’t/ ought not to go to work today. You really don’t look well.”

*Note:
The past forms should have/ shouldn’t have suggest criticism:

“You should have told me you weren’t coming, I waited for ages.”
“He shouldn’t have shouted at me.”

The non-modal expression had better (not) is stronger than should/ shouldn’t:

“It’s cold. You’d better wear a coat.” (It’s the best thing to do)
“Hurry up! We’d better not be late.”

6. Speculation and Deduction:

- Must (Certainty. We are sure it’s true):

“The lights are on. Harry must be at home.” (Present: Modal + Verb)

“Helen is late. She must have missed the train.”
“He must have been going to work. That’s why he was in a hurry.”
(Past: Modal + Have + Past Participle)

- Can’t/ Couldn’t (Certainty. We are sure it’s NOT true):

“Jamie can’t/ couldn’t be in the library. It’s closed.” (Present: Modal + Verb)
“It can’t/ couldn’t have rained/ been raining. The roads are dry.” (Past: Modal + Have + Past Participle)

- May/ Might/ Could (Possibility. We are less sure):

“Sally may/ might/ could be at home. I don’t know.”
“They may/ might/ could be watching us. Who knows?”
(Present: Modal + Verb)

“She may/ might/ could have left already. I’ll check.”
“The train may have been delayed.”
(Past: Modal + Have + Past Participle)

7. Ability:

Ways of expressing ability:

- Present: Can is more common than be able to in the present.

“Can you play tennis? No, I can’t.”

*Note:
Can also expresses future ability, if we are deciding now about the future.

“I can play tennis tomorrow if you want.”

- Past: Could/ Was able to

~ Use could for general past ability.

“Could you play chess when you were a child?”

~ Use was able to, not could, for ability in a specific situation.

“I was finally able to finish my model plane last weekend.”

~ Use wasn’t able to or couldn’t for both general and specific ability.

“I couldn’t/ wasn’t able to beat Tom at squash yesterday.”

- Future/ Perfect tenses/ Infinitive form: Can has no infinitive or past participle, so we use be able to.

“I will be able to play more tennis in the summer.”

“Has he ever been able to finish a marathon?”
“I might be able to go hiking next weekend.”

- Other ways of expressing ability:

“I know how to play chess.” (I have learned the skill)

“I succeeded in beating my sister last week.” (Suggests some difficulty)
“I managed to beat my brother as well.” (Suggests a lot of difficulty)


Exercise:

1. Complete this conversation with modals can, may, might, could, must and the correct form of the verb in brackets. There may be more than one possibility.

Modal verbs

Gap-fill exercise

Fill in all the gaps, then press "Check" to check your answers. Use the "Hint" button to get a free letter if an answer is giving you trouble. You can also click on the "[?]" button to get a clue. Note that you will lose points if you ask for hints or clues!

Jill: Our new designer jeans aren't in the warehouse. Have you any idea where they (be)?

Allan: No, but they (be) in the shop. Shall I ring and find out?

Sue: No, they (be) there. The shop's closed for the weekend. Someone (steal) the jeans from the warehouse during the night. That's the only possible explanation.

Allan: But how (the thieves/ get in)? They (break in) through the window, because there's an alarm.

Sue: They (have) a key or we (leave) a door unlocked by mistake, or perhaps someone (hide) in the warehouse when we left last night.

Jill: I'm sure there (be) some other explanation.

John: Good morning everyone! Guess what? I sold our new jeans collection to a private buyer last night...Why are you looking at me like that?